School

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A school is an institution designed for the teaching of students (or "pupils") under the direction of teachers. Most countries have systems of formal education, which is commonly compulsory. In these systems, students progress through a series of schools. The names for these schools vary by country (discussed in the Regional section below), but generally include primary school for young children and secondary school for teenagers who have completed primary education. An institution where higher education is taught, is commonly called a university college or university.

In addition to these core schools, students in a given country may also attend schools before and after primary and secondary education. Kindergarten or pre-school provide some schooling to very young children (typically ages 3–5). University, vocational school, college or seminary may be available after secondary school. A school may also be dedicated to one particular field, such as a school of economics or a school of dance. Alternative schools may provide nontraditional curriculum and methods.

There are also non-government schools, called private schools. Private schools may be required when the government does not supply adequate, or special education. Other private schools can also be religious, such as Christian schools, hawzas, yeshivas, and others; or schools that have a higher standard of education or seek to foster other personal achievements. Schools for adults include institutions of corporate training, Military education and training and business schools.

In homeschooling and online schools, teaching and learning take place outside of a traditional school building.

Etymology

The word school derives from Greek σχολή (scholē), originally meaning "leisure" and also "that in which leisure is employed", but later "a group to whom lectures were given, school".^[1][2][3]

History and development of schools

The concept of grouping students together in a centralized location for learning has existed since Classical antiquity. Formal schools have existed at least since ancient Greece (see Academy), ancient Rome (see Education in Ancient Rome) ancient India (see Gurukul), and ancient China (see History of education in China). The Byzantine Empire had an established schooling system beginning at the primary level. According to Traditions and Encounters, the founding of the primary education system began in 425 AD and "... military personnel usually had at least a primary education ...". The sometimes efficient and often large government of the Empire meant that educated citizens were a must. Although Byzantium lost much of the grandeur of Roman culture and extravagance in the process of surviving, the Empire emphasized efficiency in its war manuals. The Byzantine education system continued until the empire's collapse in 1453 AD.^[4]

Islam was another culture that developed a school system in the modern sense of the word. Emphasis was put on knowledge, which required a systematic way of teaching and spreading knowledge, and purpose-built structures. At first, mosques combined both religious performance and learning activities, but by the 9th century, the Madrassa was introduced, a proper school that was built independently from the mosque. They were also the first to make the Madrassa system a public domain under the control of the Caliph. The Nizamiyya madrasa is considered by consensus of scholars to be the earliest surviving school, built towards 1066 AD by Emir Nizam Al-Mulk.^{[citation needed]}

Under the Ottomans, the towns of Bursa and Edirne became the main centers of learning. The Ottoman system of Külliye, a building complex containing a mosque, a hospital, madrassa, and public kitchen and dining areas, revolutionized the education system, making learning accessible to a wider public through its free meals, health care and sometimes free accommodation.

The 19th century historian, Scott holds that a remarkable correspondence exists between the procedure established by those institutions and the methods of the present day. They had their collegiate courses, their prizes for proficiency in scholarship, their oratorical and poetical contests, their commencements and their degrees. In the department of medicine, a severe and prolonged examination, conducted by the most eminent physicians of the capital, was exacted of all candidates desirous of practicing their profession, and such as were unable to stand the test were formally pronounced incompetent.^{[citation needed]}

In Europe during the Middle Ages and much of the Early Modern period, the main purpose of schools (as opposed to universities) was to teach the Latin language. This led to the term grammar school, which in the United States informally refers to a primary school, but in the United Kingdom means a school that selects entrants based on ability or aptitude. Following this, the school curriculum has gradually broadened to include literacy in the vernacular language as well as technical, artistic, scientific and practical subjects.

Many of the earlier public schools in the United States were one-room schools where a single teacher taught seven grades of boys and girls in the same classroom. Beginning in the 1920s, one-room schools were consolidated into multiple classroom facilities with transportation increasingly provided by kid hacks and school buses.

Regional terms

United Kingdom and Commonwealth of Nations

In the United Kingdom, the term school refers primarily to pre-university institutions, and these can, for the most part, be divided into pre-schools or nursery schools, primary schools (sometimes further divided into infant school and junior school), and secondary schools. Various types of secondary schools in England and Wales include grammar schools, comprehensives, secondary moderns, and city academies. In Scotland, while they may have different names, all Secondary schools are the same, except in that they may be funded by the state, or independently funded (see next paragraph). It is unclear if "Academies", which are a hybrid between state and independently funded/controlled schools and have been introduced to England in recent years, will ever be introduced to Scotland. School performance in Scotland is monitored by Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Education. Ofsted reports on performance in England and Estyn reports on performance in Wales.

In the United Kingdom, most schools are publicly funded and known as state schools or maintained schools in which tuition is provided free. There are also private schools or independent schools that charge fees. Some of the most selective and expensive private schools are known as public schools, a usage that can be confusing to speakers of North American English. In North American usage, a public school is one that is publicly funded or run.

In much of the Commonwealth of Nations, including Australia, New Zealand, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, South Africa, Kenya, and Tanzania, the term school refers primarily to pre-university institutions.

India

In ancient India, schools were in the form of Gurukuls. Gurukuls were traditional Hindu residential schools of learning; typically the teacher's house or a monastery. During the Mughal rule, Madrasahs were introduced in India to educate the children of Muslim parents. British records show that indigenous education was widespread in the 18th century, with a school for every temple, mosque or village in most regions of the country. The subjects taught included Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science and Religion.

Under the British rule in India, Christian missionaries from England, USA and other countries established missionary and boarding schools throughout the country. Later as these schools gained in popularity, more were started and some gained prestige. These schools marked the beginning of modern schooling in India and the syllabus and calendar they followed became the benchmark for schools in modern India. Today most of the schools follow the missionary school model in terms of tutoring, subject / syllabus, governance etc.with minor changes. Schools in India range from schools with large campuses with thousands of students and hefty fees to schools where children are taught under a tree with a small / no campus and are totally free of cost. There are various boards of schools in India, namely Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), Madrasa Boards of various states, Matriculation Boards of various states, State Boards of various boards, Anglo Indian Board, and so on. The typical syllabus today includes Language(s), Mathematics, Science - Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Geography, History, General Knowledge, Information Technology / Computer Science etc.. Extra curricular activities include physical education / sports and cultural activities like music, choreography, painting, theater / drama etc.

Europe

n much of continental Europe, the term school usually applies to primary education, with primary schools that last between four and nine years, depending on the country. It also applies to secondary education, with secondary schools often divided between Gymnasiums and vocational schools, which again depending on country and type of school educate students for between three and six years. In Germany students graduating from Grundschule are not allowed to directly progress into a vocational school, but are supposed to proceed to one of Germany's general education schools such as Gesamtschule, Hauptschule, Realschule or Gymnasium. When they leave that school, which usually happens at age 15-19 they are allowed to proceed to a vocational school. The term school is rarely used for tertiary education, except for some upper or high schools (German: Hochschule), which describe colleges and universities.

In Eastern Europe modern schools (after World War II), of both primary and secondary educations, often are combined, while secondary education might be split into accomplished or not. The schools are classified as middle schools of general education and for the technical purposes include "degrees" of the education they provide out of three available: the first - primary, the second - unaccomplished secondary, and the third - accomplished secondary. Usually the first two degrees of education (eight years) are always included, while the last one (two years) gives option for the students to pursue vocational or specialized educations.

North America and the United States

In North America, the term school can refer to any educational institution at any level, and covers all of the following: preschool (for toddlers), kindergarten, elementary school, middle school (also called intermediate school or junior high school, depending on specific age groups and geographic region), senior high school, college, university, and graduate school.

In the US, school performance through high school is monitored by each state's Department of Education. Charter schools are publicly funded elementary or secondary schools that have been freed from some of the rules, regulations, and statutes that apply to other public schools. The terms grammar school and grade school are sometimes used to refer to a primary school.

School ownership and operation

Many schools are owned or funded by states. Private schools operate independently from the government. Private schools usually rely on fees from families whose children attend the school for funding; however, sometimes such schools also receive government support (for example, through School vouchers). Many private schools are affiliated with a particular religion; these are known as parochial schools.

Components of most schools

Schools are organized spaces purposed for teaching and learning. The classrooms, where teachers teach and students learn, are of central importance, but typical schools have many other areas, which may include:

• Cafeteria (Commons), dining hall or canteen where students eat lunch and often breakfast and snacks.
• Athletic field, playground, gym, and/or track place where students participating in sports or physical education practice
• Auditorium or hall where student theatrical and musical productions can be staged and where all-school events such as assemblies are held
• Office where the administrative work of the school is done
• Library where students consult and check out books and magazines and often use computers
• Specialized classrooms including laboratories for science education
• Computer labs where computer-based work is done and the internet accessed

School security

The safety of staff and students is increasingly becoming an issue for school communities, an issue most schools are addressing through improved security. After mass shootings such as the Columbine High School massacre and the Virginia Tech incident, many school administrators in the United States have created plans to protect students and staff in the event of a school shooting. Some have also taken measures such as installing metal detectors or video surveillance. Others have even taken measures such as having the children swipe identification cards as they board the school bus. For some schools, these plans have included the use of door numbering to aid public safety response.

Other security concerns faced by schools include bomb threats, gangs, vandalism,^[5] and bullying.^[6]

School health services

School health services are services from medical, teaching and other professionals applied in or out of school to improve the health and well-being of children and in some cases whole families. These services have been developed in different ways around the globe but the fundamentals are constant: the early detection, correction, prevention or amelioration of disease, disability and abuse from which school aged children can suffer.

Online schools and classes

Some schools offer remote access to their classes over the Internet. Online schools also can provide support to traditional schools, as in the case of the School Net Namibia. Some online classes provide experience in a class so that when you take it you have already been introduced to the subject and know what to expect, and even more classes provide High School/College credit allowing you to take the class at your own pace. Many online classes cost money to use but some are offered free.

Stress

As a profession, teaching has levels of Work-Related Stress (WRS)^[7] that are among the highest of any profession in some countries, such as the United Kingdom. The degree of this problem is becoming increasingly recognized and support systems are being put into place.^[8][9] Teacher education increasingly recognizes the need to train those new to the profession to be aware of and overcome mental health challenges they may face.^{[citation needed]}

Stress sometimes affects students more severely than teachers, up to the point where the students are prescribed stress medication. This stress is claimed to be related to standardized testing, and the pressure on students to score above average.^[10][11] See Cram school.

Discipline

Schools and their teachers have always been under pressure — for instance, pressure to cover the curriculum, to perform well in comparison to other schools, and to avoid the stigma of being "soft" or "spoiling" toward students. Forms of discipline, such as control over when students may speak, and normalized behaviour, such as raising a hand to speak, are imposed in the name of greater efficiency. Practitioners of critical pedagogy maintain that such disciplinary measures have no positive effect on student learning. Indeed, some argue that disciplinary practices detract from learning, saying that they undermine students' individual dignity and sense of self-worth—the latter occupying a more primary role in students' hierarchy of needs

PENGERTIAN BAHASA

1. Menurut Kerafsm Arapradhipa 2005 :
Memberikan dua pengertian :
- Bahasa : Sebagai alat komunikasi antara anggota masyarakat berupa symbol bunyi yang dihasilkan oleh alat ucap manusia.
- Bahasa : Sistem komunikasi yang mempergunakan symbol-simbol vokal.

2. Menurut Torigan (1989 : 4)
Beliau memberikan dua definisi bahasa :
- Bahasa adalah : Suatu sistem yang sistematis barangkali untuk sistem generatif.
- Bahasa adalah : Seperangkat lambang-lambang atau symbol-simbol orbiter.

3. Menurut Santoso (1990 : 1)
Bahasa adalah rangkaian bunyi yang dihasilkan oleh alat ucap manusia secara sadar.

4. Menurut Wibowo (2009 : 3)
Bahasa adalah suatu sistem symbol bunyi yang bermakna yang berarti kualisi (dihasilkan oleh alat ucap) yang bersifat arbiter dan konfisional yang dipakai sebagai alat komunikasi oleh sekelompok orang untuk melahirkan perasaan dan pikiran.

5. Menurut Wibowo, Walija (1990 : 4) mengungkapkan :
Definisi bahasa adalah : komunikasi yang paling lengkap dan efektif untuk menyampaikan ide, pesan, maksud dan pendapat kepada orang lain.

6. Menurut Pengabean (1981 : 5) berpendapat :
Bahasa adalah suatu sistem yang mengutarakan dan melepaskan apa yang terjadi pada sistem saraf.

7. Menurut Soejono (1983 : 01)
Bahasa adalah suatu sarana perhubungan rohani yang penting dalam hidup bersama.

sumber: http://marskrip.blogspot.com/2009/12/pengertian-bahasa-menurut-para-ahli.html

Suhu dan Kalor

Suhu dan Kalor

1. Pengertian Suhu
Suhu atau temperatur benda adalah besaran yang menyatakan derajat panas suatu benda.
Benda yang panas eememiliki suhu yang tinggi, sedangkan benda yang dinginkan memiliki suhu yang rendah. Perlu diketahui bahwa suhu merupakan besaran, maka yang memiliki suhu tentu benda. Misalnya suhu es yang sedang mencair, suhu air yang mendidih dan seterusnya. Jadi tidak ada suhu tempat atau ruangan, yang ada adalah suhu udara di tempat atau ruangan.

2. Alat Ukur Suhu
Ketika kita memanaskan atau mendinginkan suatu benda sampai pada suhu tertentu, bebrapa sifat fisik benda tersebut berubah. Sifat-sifat benda yang akibat berubah adanya perubahan suhu di sebut sifat termometrik. Sifat termometrik suatu zat dapat di manfaatkan sebagai suatu alat pengukur suhu.
Thermometer adalah alat yang di gunakan untuk mengukur suhu atau benda. Berbagai jenis thermometer di buat berdasarkan beberapa sifat termometrik zat, seperti pemuain zat padat, pemuain zat cair, pemuain gas, tekanan zat cair, teknan udara, regangan zat padat, hambatan zat terhadap arus listrik, dan intensitas cahaya (radiasi benda).
Berdasarkan sifat termomatrik zat, jenis-jenis thermometer antara lain sebagai berikut.
  Thermometer Zat Cair
Alat ni bekerja berdasarkan prinsip bahwazat cair akan memuai (bertamba volumenya jika di panaskan).

  Thermometer Bimetal
Alat ini bekerja berdasarkan prinsip bahwa logam akan memuai (bertambah panjang) jika di panaskan.
  Thermometer Hambatan
Alat ini bekerja berdasar prinsi bahwa seutas kawat logam di panaskan, hambatan listriknya akan bertambah. Perubahan hambatan listrik ini kemudian di ubah ke dalam pulsa-pulsa listrik. Pulsa listrik inilah yang menunjukan suhu saat itu.
  Temokopel
Perbedaan pemuain antara dua logam yang ke dua ujungnya di sentuhkan di manfaatkan pada termokopel. Pada prinsipnya, pemuaian yang berbeda antara dua logam yang ujungnya di sentuhkan akan menghasilkan gaya gerak listrik (GGL). Besar GGL inilah yang di manfaatkan oleh termokopeluntuk menunjukan suhu.
  Thermometer Gas
Bila sejumlah gas yang di panaskan volumenya di jaga tetap, tekanannya akan bertambah. Sifat termometrik inilah yang di manfaatkan untuk mengukut suhu pada thermometer gas
  Pyrometer
Pyrometer bekerja dengan mengukur intensitas radiasi yang di pancarkan oleh benda yang sangat panas. Instrument pyrometer tidak menyentuh benda panas sehingga pyrometer dapat di gunakan untuk mengukur suhu yang sangat tinggi (kira-kira 5000C – 30000C) yang dapat membakar habis thermometer jenis lainnya.
Secara umum untuk menuntukan suhu thermometer X dibandingkan dengan thermometer celcius, reamur dan Fahrenheit di nyatakan dengan:
 Keterangan :
TX = suhu di ukur dengan thermometer X
TXa = titik atas thermometer X
TXb = titik bawah thermometer X
TC = suhu dalam derajat celcius
TR = suhu dalam derajat reamur
TF = suhu dalam derajat Fahrenheit
T = suhu dalam derajat Kelvin
TRa = suhu dalam derajat rankine.

Conth soal
1. pada saat demam, suhu badan khairul mencapai 400C. berapa derajat suhu badan khairul jika diukut dengan termometer klinis skala reamur atau skala Fahrenheit ?
Penyelesaian:

TR = 4 TC = 4 (400) = 320R
  5 5
TF = 9 TC + 32 = 9 (400) + 320 = 9 (80) + 320 =1040F
  5 5
B. KALOR
Air sumur mengalami kenaikan suhu dan air panas mengalami penurunan suhu. Hal ini menunjukan terjadi perpindahan energi dan benda yang mempunyai suhu tinggi (panas) ke benda yang bersuhu elebih rendah, energi yang berpindah pada peristiwa di atas adalah kalor.
Definisi kalor adalah energi yang berpinda dari benda yang suhunya lebih tinggi ke benda yang suhunya rendah ketika kedua benda bersentuhan
1. Kalor Menyebabkan Perubahan Suhu Kalor
Jika kalor diberikan pada suatu zat, maka ada tiga kemungkinan zat tersebut yaitu zat emengalami perubahan suhu, zat mengalami perubahan wujud, dan zat mengalami pemuaian.
Semakain lama pemanasan berarti berarti semakin besar kalor yang diberikan, sehingga akan menaikan suhu benda secara linear
2. Pengaruh Perubahan Suhu Terhadap Besarannya Kalor
Besarnya kalor yang di perlukan untuk menaikan suhu suatu zat sebanding dengan:
a. Massa zat itu
b. Kenaikan suhunya
Jika besarnya kalor yang di butuhkan suatu zat yang bermassa m untuk kenaikan suhu T sebesar Q, maka:

 

3. Kalor Jenis Dan Kapasitas Kalor Suatu Benda
Kalor jenis suatu zat adalah banyaknya kalor yang di perlukan untuk menaikan atau melepaskan suhu tiap satu kilogram massa suatu zat sebesar 1C0 atau satu Kelvin.

Atau dapa di tulis sebagai

Kapasitas kalor suatu benda adalah kemampuan suatu benda untuk menerima atau menurunkan suhu benda sebesar 10C

Atau dapat ditulis sebagai
1.


Berdasarkan persamaan diatas maka kepastian kalor dapat ditulis

Keterangan:

C = kapasitas kalor daam satuan J/K atau J/C0
C = kalor jenis, dalam satuan J/kg K atau J/KG C0
M = massa benda, dalam satu kg.

sumber: http://marskrip.blogspot.com/2009/12/suhu-dan-kalor.html

Koperasi

ARTIKEL TENTANG KOPERASI

PENGERTIAN KOPERASI

Koperasi adalah merupakan singkatan dari kata ko / co dan operasi / operation. Koperasi adalah suatu kumpulan orang-orang untuk bekerja sama demi kesejahteraan bersama. Berdasarkan undang-undang nomor 12 tahun 1967, koperasi indonesia adalah organisasi ekonomi rakyat yang berwatak sosial dan beranggotakan orang-orang, badan-badan hukum koperasi yang merupakan tata susunan ekonomi sebagai usaha bersama berdasar atas asas kekeluargaan.

Berikut di bawah ini adalah landasan koperasi indonesia yang melandasi aktifitas koperasi di indonesia.

- Landasan Idiil = Pancasila
- Landasan Mental = Setia kawan dan kesadaran diri sendiri
- Landasan Struktural dan gerak = UUD 1945 Pasal 33 Ayat 1

Landasan, Asas, dan Tujuan Koperasi Indonesia sebagaimana diatur dalam UU 25 Tahun 1992 tentang Perkoperasian, dijelaskan pada bab II dalam dua pasal. Landasan dan asas koperasi dijelaskan dalam pasal 2, dan tujuan koperasi dijelaskan dalam pasal 3.

Berikut kutipan bunyi lengkap pasal dimaksud.

Pasal 2

Koperasi berlandaskan Pancasila dan Undang-Undang Dasar 1945 atas asas kekeluargaan.

Pasal 3

Koperasi bertujuan memajukan kesejahteraan anggota pada khususnya dan masyarakat pada umumnya serta ikut membangun tatanan perkeonomian nasional dalam rangka mewujudkan masyarakat yang maju, adil, dan Undang-Undang Dasar 1945.

FUNGSI DAN TUGAS KOPERASI

A. Fungsi Koperasi / Koprasi

1. Sebagai urat nadi kegiatan perekonomian indonesia
2. Sebagai upaya mendemokrasikan sosial ekonomi indonesia
3. Untuk meningkatkan kesejahteraan warga negara indonesia
4. Memperkokoh perekonomian rakyat indonesia dengan jalan pembinaan koperasi
B. Peran dan Tugas Koperasi / Koperasi
1. Meningkatkan tarah hidup sederhana masyarakat indonesia
2. Mengembangkan demokrasi ekonomi di indonesia
3. Mewujudkan pendapatan masyarakat yang adil dan merata dengan cara menyatukan, membina, dan mengembangkan setiap potensi yang ada
MACAM DAN JENIS KOPERASI

Ada dua jenis koperasi yang cukup dikenal luas oleh masyarakat, yakni KUD dan KSP. KUD (Koperasi Unit Desa) tumbuh dan berkembang subur pada masa pemerintahan orde baru. Sedangkan KSP (Koperasi Simpan Pinjam) tumbuh dan berkembang dalam era globalisasi saat ini. KUD dan KSP hanyalah contoh dari sekian jenis koperasi.

Koperasi Berdasarkan Jenis Usahanya

Secara umum, berdasar jenis usaha, koperasi terdiri atas Koperasi Simpan Pinjam (KSP), Koperasi Serba Usaha (KSU), Koperasi Konsumsi, dan Koperasi Produksi.

a. Koperasi Simpan Pinjam (KSP)

KSP adalah koperasi yang memiliki usaha tunggal yaitu menampung simpanan anggota dan melayani peminjaman. Anggota yang menabung (menyimpan) akan mendapatkan imbalan jasa dan bagi peminjam dikenakan jasa. Besarnya jasa bagi penabung dan peminjam ditentukan melalui rapat anggota. Dari sinilah, kegiatan usaha koperasi dapat dikatakan “dari, oleh, dan untuk anggota.”

b. Koperasi Serba Usaha (KSU)

KSU adalah koperasi yang bidang usahanya bermacam-macam. Misalnya, unit usaha simpan pinjam, unit pertokoan untuk melayani kebutuhan sehari-hari anggota juga masyarakat, unit produksi, unit wartel.

c. Koperasi Konsumsi

Koperasi konsumsi adalah koperasi yang bidang usahanya menyediakan kebutuhan sehari-hari anggota. Kebutuhan yang dimaksud misalnya kebutuhan bahan makanan, pakaian, perabot rumah tangga.

d. Koperasi Produksi

Koperasi produksi adalah koperasi yang bidang usahanya membuat barang (memproduksi) dan menjual secara bersama-sama. Anggota koperasi ini pada umumnya sudah memiliki usaha dan melalui koperasi para anggota mendapatkan bantuan modal dan pemasaran.

Koperasi Berdasarkan Keanggotaannya

a. Koperasi Unit Desa (KUD)

Koperasi Unit Desa adalah koperasi yang beranggotakan masyarakat pedesaan.. Koperasi ini melakukan kegiatan usaha ekonomi pedesaan, terutama pertanian. Untuk itu, kegiatan yang dilakukan KUD antara lain menyediakan pupuk, obat pemberantas hama tanaman, benih, alat pertanian, dan memberi penyuluhan teknis pertanian.

b. Koperasi Pegawai Republik Indonesia (KPRI)

Koperasi ini beranggotakan para pegawai negeri. Sebelum KPRI, koperasi ini bernama Koperasi Pegawai Negeri (KPN). KPRI bertujuan terutama meningkatkan kesejateraan para pegawai negeri (anggota). KPRI dapat didirikan di lingkup departemen atau instansi.

c. Koperasi Sekolah

Koperasi Sekolah meiliki anggota dari warga sekolah, yaitu guru, karyawan, dan siswa. Koperasi sekolah memiliki kegiatan usaha menyediakan kebutuhan warga sekolah, seperti buku pelajaran, alat tulis, makanan, dan lain-lain. Keberadaan koperasi sekolah bukan semata-mata sebagai kegiatan ekonomi, melainkan sebagai media pendidikan bagi siswa antara lain berorganisasi, kepemimpinan, tanggung jawab, dan kejujuran.

Sumber: http://ninasafitri.blogspot.com/

MAKNA PERSAHABTAN

Mampukah kita membayangkan persahabatan tanpa cinta ?
Persahabatan dan cinta adalah teman terbaik. Karena dimana ada cinta, persahabatan selalu ada di sampingnya. Dan dimana persahabatan berada, cinta selalu tersenyum ceria dan tidak pernah meninggalkan persahabatan.

Pada suatu hari persahabatan mulai berpikir bahwa cinta telah membuat dirinya tidak mendapat perhatian lagi karena persahabatan mengganggap cinta lebih menarik dari pada dirinya.

Hmm… seandainya tidak ada cinta mungkin aku lebih terkenal, dan lebih banyak orang memberi perhatian kepadaku begitu pikir persahabatan. Sejak hari itu persahabatan memusuhi cinta. Ketika cinta mulai bermain bersama persahabatan selalu seperti akan menjauhi cinta. Apabla cinta bertanya kenapa persahabatan menjauhi dirinya, persahabatan hanya memalingkan wajah dan menghindar meninggalkan cinta.

Kesedihan pun menghampiri cinta dan cinta tidak sanggup menahan air matanya lalu menangis tersedu-sedu. Kesedihan hanya termangu memandang cinta yang kehilangan teman baiknya.

Beberapa hari tanpa cinta, persahabatan mulai bergaul dengan kecewa, putus asa, kemarahan dan kebencian. Persahabatan mulai kehilangan sifat manisnya, dan orang-orang mulai tidak menyukai persahabatan. Persahabatan mulai dijauhi dan tidak disukai lagi. Walaupun persahabatan cantik, tetapi sifatnya mulai memuakkan. Persahabatan menyadari dirinya bahwa tidak lagi di sukai lantaran banyak orang yang menjauhi dirinya, persahabatan mulai menyesali keadaannya, dan saat itulah kesedihan melihat persahabatan. Lalu menyampaikan kepada cinta bahwa persahabatan dalam kedukaan.

Dengan segera cinta berlari dan menghampiri persahabatan. Saat persahabatan melihat cinta menghampiri dirinya, dengan air mata yg berlinang persahabatan pun meluapkan seribu penyesalannya meninggalkan cinta. Akhirnya, persahabatan dan cinta kembali menjadi teman baik, persahabatan kembali menjadi pribadi yang menyenangkan dan cinta pun kembali tersenyum ceria. Semua orang akhirnya melihat kedua teman baik itu sebagai berkat dan anugrah dalam kehidupan.

Moral,
Mampukah persahabatan tanpa cinta?
Mampukah cinta tanpa persahabatan??
Sering kali kita temui banyak orang memisahkan persahabatan dan cinta karena mereka berpikir “kalau persahabatan sudah diselami dengan cinta, pasti akan menjadi sulit.” Terutama bagi mereka yg menjalin persahabatan antara lelaki dan wanita. Persahabatan merupakan bentuk hubungan yg indah antara manusia, di mana cinta hadir untuk memberikan senyumnya dan mewarnai persahabatan. Tanpa cinta, persahabatan mungkin akan di isi dengan kecewa,benci, marah, egois dan berbagai hal yg membuat persahabatan tidak lagi indah.

Berhentilah membuat batas antara cinta dan persahabatan, biarkanlah mereka tetap menjadi teman baik, yang harus di luruskan adalah cinta bukanlah perusak persahabatan. Cinta memperindah persahabatan kita. Sering kali cinta cuma dijadikan kambing hitam sebagai perusak sebuah persahabatan. Salah besar!! seharusnya dengan adanya cinta, persahabatan akan semakin menyenangkan.

Teman-teman yang sedang mengalami goncangan dalam persahabatan, jangan salahkan cinta! tetapi cobalah perbaiki persahabatanmu dengan cinta, karena cinta akan menutupi segala kesalahan, mengampuni dengan mudah dan membuat sesuatu yg tidak mungkin menjadi mungkin.

Teman-teman yg belum mengerti arti persahabatan, cobalah memulai sebuah persahabatan. Karena dengan persahabatan kalian akan semakin dewasa, tidak egois dan belajar untuk mengerti. bahwa segala sesuatu tidak selalu terjadi dengan keinginan kita.

Teman-teman yang sedang kecewa dengan persahabatan, renungkanlah. Apakah saya sudah menjalani persahabatan dengan benar dan cobalah memahami arti persahabatan buat hidupmu. Keinginan, semangat, pengertian, kematangan, kelemahlembutan dan segala hal yg baik akan kita temui dalam persahabatan.

Weather

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Weather is the state of the atmosphere, to the degree that it is hot or cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy.^[1] Most weather phenomena occur in the troposphere,^[2][3] just below the stratosphere. Weather refers, generally, to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas climate is the term for the average atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time.^[4] When used without qualification, "weather" is understood to be the weather of Earth.

Weather is driven by density (temperature and moisture) differences between one place and another. These differences can occur due to the sun angle at any particular spot, which varies by latitude from the tropics. The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the jet stream. Weather systems in the mid-latitudes, such as extratropical cyclones, are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow. Because the Earth's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane, sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of the year. On Earth's surface, temperatures usually range ±40 °C (100 °F to −40 °F) annually. Over thousands of years, changes in Earth's orbit affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth and influence long-term climate and global climate change.

Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences. Higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes due to differences in compressional heating. Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. The atmosphere is a chaotic system, so small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large effects on the system as a whole. Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout human history, and there is evidence that human activity such as agriculture and industry has inadvertently modified weather patterns.

Studying how the weather works on other planets has been helpful in understanding how weather works on Earth. A famous landmark in the Solar System, Jupiter's Great Red Spot, is an anticyclonic storm known to have existed for at least 300 years. However, weather is not limited to planetary bodies. A star's corona is constantly being lost to space, creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System. The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind.

Cause

On Earth, common weather phenomena include wind, cloud, rain, snow, fog and dust storms. Less common events include natural disasters such as tornadoes, hurricanes, typhoons and ice storms. Almost all familiar weather phenomena occur in the troposphere (the lower part of the atmosphere).^[3] Weather does occur in the stratosphere and can affect weather lower down in the troposphere, but the exact mechanisms are poorly understood.^[5]

Weather occurs primarily due to density (temperature and moisture) differences between one place to another. These differences can occur due to the sun angle at any particular spot, which varies by latitude from the tropics. In other words, the farther from the tropics you lie, the lower the sun angle is, which causes those locations to be cooler due to the indirect sunlight.^[6] The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the jet stream.^[7] Weather systems in the mid-latitudes, such as extratropical cyclones, are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow (see baroclinity).^[8] Weather systems in the tropics, such as monsoons or organized thunderstorm systems, are caused by different processes.

Because the Earth's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane, sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of the year. In June the Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the sun, so at any given Northern Hemisphere latitude sunlight falls more directly on that spot than in December (see Effect of sun angle on climate).^[9] This effect causes seasons. Over thousands to hundreds of thousands of years, changes in Earth's orbital parameters affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth and influence long-term climate. (see Milankovitch cycles).^[10]

The uneven solar heating (the formation of zones of temperature and moisture gradients, or frontogenesis) can also be due to the weather itself in the form of cloudiness and precipitation.^[11] Higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes, which is explained by the lapse rate.^[12][13] On local scales, temperature differences can occur because different surfaces (such as oceans, forests, ice sheets, or man-made objects) have differing physical characteristics such as reflectivity, roughness, or moisture content.

Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences. A hot surface heats the air above it and the air expands, lowering the air pressure and its density.^[14] The resulting horizontal pressure gradient accelerates the air from high to low pressure, creating wind, and Earth's rotation then causes curvature of the flow via the Coriolis effect.^[15] The simple systems thus formed can then display emergent behaviour to produce more complex systems and thus other weather phenomena. Large scale examples include the Hadley cell while a smaller scale example would be coastal breezes.

The atmosphere is a chaotic system, so small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large effects on the system as a whole.^[16] This makes it difficult to accurately predict weather more than a few days in advance, though weather forecasters are continually working to extend this limit through the scientific study of weather, meteorology. It is theoretically impossible to make useful day-to-day predictions more than about two weeks ahead, imposing an upper limit to potential for improved prediction skill.^[17]

Shaping the planet Earth

Weather is one of the fundamental processes that shape the Earth. The process of weathering breaks down the rocks and soils into smaller fragments and then into their constituent substances.^[18] These are then free to take part in chemical reactions that can affect the surface further (such as acid rain) or are reformed into other rocks and soils. In this way, weather plays a major role in erosion of the surface.^[19]

Effect on humans

Effects on populations

Weather has played a large and sometimes direct part in human history. Aside from climatic changes that have caused the gradual drift of populations (for example the desertification of the Middle East, and the formation of land bridges during glacial periods), extreme weather events have caused smaller scale population movements and intruded directly in historical events. One such event is the saving of Japan from invasion by the Mongol fleet of Kublai Khan by the Kamikaze winds in 1281.^[20] French claims to Florida came to an end in 1565 when a hurricane destroyed the French fleet, allowing Spain to conquer Fort Caroline.^[21] More recently, Hurricane Katrina redistributed over one million people from the central Gulf coast elsewhere across the United States, becoming the largest diaspora in the history of the United States.^[22]

The Little Ice Age caused crop failures and famines in Europe. The 1690s saw the worst famine in France since the

Middle Ages. Finland suffered a severe famine in 1696–1697, during which about one-third of the Finnish population died.^[23]

Effects on individuals

The human body is negatively affected by extremes in temperature, humidity, and wind.^[24]

Forecasting

Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. Human beings have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia, and formally since at least the nineteenth century.^[25][26] Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about the current state of the atmosphere and using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to project how the atmosphere will evolve.^[27]

Once an all-human endeavor based mainly upon changes in barometric pressure, current weather conditions, and sky condition,^[28][29] forecast models are now used to determine future conditions. Human input is still required to pick the best possible forecast model to base the forecast upon, which involves pattern recognition skills, teleconnections, knowledge of model performance, and knowledge of model biases. The chaotic nature of the atmosphere, the massive computational power required to solve the equations that describe the atmosphere, error involved in measuring the initial conditions, and an incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes mean that forecasts become less accurate as the difference in current time and the time for which the forecast is being made (the range of the forecast) increases. The use of ensembles and model consensus helps to narrow the error and pick the most likely outcome.^[30][31][32]

There are a variety of end users to weather forecasts. Weather warnings are important forecasts because they are used to protect life and property.^[33][34] Forecasts based on temperature and precipitation are important to agriculture,^{[35][36][37][38]} and therefore to commodity traders within stock markets. Temperature forecasts are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming days.^[39][40][41] On an everyday basis, people use weather forecasts to determine what to wear on a given day. Since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by heavy rain, snow and the wind chill, forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events, and to plan ahead and survive them.

Modification

The aspiration to control the weather is evident throughout human history: from ancient rituals intended to bring rain for crops to the U.S. Military Operation Popeye, an attempt to disrupt supply lines by lengthening the North Vietnamese monsoon. The most successful attempts at influencing weather involve cloud seeding; they include the fog- and low stratus dispersion techniques employed by major airports, techniques used to increase winter precipitation over mountains, and techniques to suppress hail.^[42] A recent example of weather control was China's preparation for the 2008 Summer Olympic Games. China shot 1,104 rain dispersal rockets from 21 sites in the city of Beijing in an effort to keep rain away from the opening ceremony of the games on 8 August 2008. Guo Hu, head of the Beijing Municipal Meteorological Bureau (BMB), confirmed the success of the operation with 100 millimeters falling in Baoding City of Hebei Province, to the southwest and Beijing's Fangshan District recording a rainfall of 25 millimeters.^[43]

Whereas there is inconclusive evidence for these techniques' efficacy, there is extensive evidence that human activity such as agriculture and industry results in inadvertent weather modification:^[42]

• Acid rain, caused by industrial emission of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere, adversely affects freshwater lakes, vegetation, and structures.
• Anthropogenic pollutants reduce air quality and visibility.
• Climate change caused by human activities that emit greenhouse gases into the air is expected to affect the frequency of extreme weather events such as drought, extreme temperatures, flooding, high winds, and severe storms.^[44]

The effects of inadvertent weather modification may pose serious threats to many aspects of civilization, including ecosystems, natural resources, food and fiber production, economic development, and human health.^[45]

Extremes on Earth

On Earth, temperatures usually range ±40 °C (100 °F to −40 °F) annually. The range of climates and latitudes across the planet can offer extremes of temperature outside this range. The coldest air temperature ever recorded on Earth is −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F), at Vostok Station, Antarctica on 21 July 1983. The hottest air temperature ever recorded was 57.7 °C (135.9 °F) at 'Aziziya, Libya, on 13 September 1922,^[46] but that reading is queried. The highest recorded average annual temperature was 34.4 °C (93.9 °F) at Dallol, Ethiopia.^[47] The coldest recorded average annual temperature was −55.1 °C (−67.2 °F) at Vostok Station, Antarctica.^[48] The coldest average annual temperature in a permanently inhabited location is at Eureka, Nunavut, in Canada, where the annual average temperature is −19.7 °C (−3.5 °F).^[49]

Extraterrestrial within the Solar System

Studying how the weather works on other planets has been seen as helpful in understanding how it works on Earth.^[50] Weather on other planets follows many of the same physical principles as weather on Earth, but occurs on different scales and in atmospheres having different chemical composition. The Cassini–Huygens mission to Titan discovered clouds formed from methane or ethane which deposit rain composed of liquid methane and other organic compounds.^[51] Earth's atmosphere includes six latitudinal circulation zones, three in each hemisphere.^[52] In contrast, Jupiter's banded appearance shows many such zones,^[53] Titan has a single jet stream near the 50th parallel north latitude,^[54] and Venus has a single jet near the equator.^[55]

One of the most famous landmarks in the Solar System, Jupiter's Great Red Spot, is an anticyclonic storm known to have existed for at least 300 years.^[56] On other gas giants, the lack of a surface allows the wind to reach enormous speeds: gusts of up to 600 metres per second (about 2,100 km/h or 1,300 mph) have been measured on the planet Neptune.^[57] This has created a puzzle for planetary scientists. The weather is ultimately created by solar energy and the amount of energy received by Neptune is only about ¹⁄₉₀₀ of that received by Earth, yet the intensity of weather phenomena on Neptune is far greater than on Earth.^[58] The strongest planetary winds discovered so far are on the extrasolar planet HD 189733 b, which is thought to have easterly winds moving at more than 9,600 kilometres per hour (6,000 mph).^[59]

Space weather

Weather is not limited to planetary bodies. Like all stars, the sun's corona is constantly being lost to space, creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System. The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind. Inconsistencies in this wind and larger events on the surface of the star, such as coronal mass ejections, form a system that has features analogous to conventional weather systems (such as pressure and wind) and is generally known as space weather. Coronal mass ejections have been tracked as far out in the solar system as Saturn.^[60] The activity of this system can affect planetary atmospheres and occasionally surfaces. The interaction of the solar wind with the terrestrial atmosphere can produce spectacular aurorae,^[61] and can play havoc with electrically sensitive systems such as electricity grids and radio signals.[62]